Nianfo

Chinese Nianfo carving

The Nianfo (Chinese: 念佛; pinyin: niànfó), alternatively in Japanese as 念仏 (ねんぶつ, nenbutsu), Korean: 염불; RR: yeombul, or in Vietnamese: niệm Phật, is a Buddhist practice central to the East Asian Buddhism. The Chinese term nianfo is a translation of Sanskrit buddhānusmṛti (or "recollection of the Buddha"), which is a classic Buddhist mindfulness (smṛti) practice.

Nianfo focused on the Buddha Amitābha is also the most important practice in Pure Land Buddhism. In the context of East Asian Pure Land practice, the term nianfo typically refers to the oral repetition of the name of Amitābha through the phrase "Homage to Amitabha Buddha" (Ch: 南無阿彌陀佛, Mandarin: Nāmó Ēmítuófó, Jp: Namu Amida Butsu; from the Sanskrit: Namo'mitābhāya Buddhāya). It can also refer to that phrase itself, in which case it may also be called the nianfo, or "The Name". In most extant Pure Land traditions, mindfully chanting of the name of Amitābha is viewed as allowing one to obtain birth in Amitābha's pure land, Sukhāvatī. It is felt that this act would help to negate vast stores of negative karma that might hinder one's pursuit of buddhahood. Sukhāvatī is a place of refuge where one can become enlightened without being distracted by the sufferings of samsara.

Furthermore, in some contexts, the term nianfo can also refer to other meditative practices, such as various visualizations or the recitations of other phrases, dharanis, or mantras associated with Pure Land Buddhism, the Buddha Amitābha and his attendant bodhisattvas.

Origins

Main article: Buddhānusmṛti

Mindfulness of the Buddha (buddhānusmṛti) is a practice which can be found in the Early Buddhist Texts as part of the ten recollections. The practice appears in Pali Canon suttas like Anguttara Nikaya (AN) 11.11, AN 11.12 and AN 1.296 as a method that can lead to samādhi and ultimately nirvana. Likewise, Agamas like EA III, 1 (Taisho Vol. II, p. 554a7-b9) also discuss the practice as a method of focusing the mind on the Buddha and his qualities.

Indian Mahāyāna Buddhism

Indian Mahāyāna teachings developed the early Buddhist practices of buddhānusmṛti in more visionary directions. Some scholars like Andrew Skilton argue that Kashmiri Sarvāstivādin meditation masters influenced the development of more complex Mahayana meditations on the Buddhas.

A key feature of Mahāyāna buddhānusmṛti is that it was not restricted to Shakyamuni Buddha but could also be directed as other Buddhas, like Akṣobhya, Maitreya, and Amitābha Buddha. Groups of Mahāyāna sutras were composed based on these figures. With translations of these sūtras as well as the spread of Buddhism out of India, the practice of Mahāyāna buddhānusmṛti rapidly spread to Central Asia, Southeast Asia, and East Asia as well.

Hajime Nakamura writes that in the Indian Pure Land sūtras, Mindfulness of the Buddha (buddhānusmṛti) is the essential practice and consists of meditating upon Amitābha Buddha. Further, the practice of dedicating one's merit attained through such practices toward rebirth in a Buddha's pure buddha-field (viśuddhabuddhakṣetra) became a widespread practice as early as second century CE, with the Buddha Amitābha rising in prominence as a Buddha who had created a perfectly pure and easily accessible buddha-field.

Key Mahāyāna texts for East Asian Buddhism

The earliest dated sutra translated into Chinese which describes the nianfo is the Pratyutpanna Samādhi Sūtra (first century BCE), which is thought to have originated in ancient kingdom of Gandhāra. This sutra does not enumerate any vows of Amitābha or the qualities of his pure land, Sukhāvatī, but rather briefly describes the repetition of the name of Amitābha as a means to enter his realm through meditation.

Bodhisattvas hear about the Buddha Amitabha and call him to mind again and again in this land. Because of this calling to mind, they see the Buddha Amitabha. Having seen him they ask him what dharmas it takes to be born in the realm of the Buddha Amitabha. Then the Buddha Amitabha says to these bodhisattvas: 'If you wish to come and be born in my realm, you must always call me to mind again and again, you must always keep this thought in mind without letting up, and thus you will succeed in coming to be born in my realm.

Among the most frequently cited examples in East Asian Pure Land Buddhism is found in the Sutra on the Buddha of Immeasurable Life where Amitabha's vows are enumerated. The 18th, 19th and 20th vows state:

18. If, when I attain buddhahood, sentient beings in the lands of the ten directions who sincerely and joyfully entrust themselves to me, desire to be born in my land, and think of me even ten times should not be born there, may I not attain perfect enlightenment. Excluded, however, are those who commit the five grave offenses and abuse the Right Dharma.

19. If, when I attain buddhahood, sentient beings in the lands of the ten directions who awaken aspiration for enlightenment, do various meritorious deeds, and sincerely desire to be born in my land, should not, at their death, see me appear before them surrounded by a multitude of sages, may I not attain perfect enlightenment.

20. If, when I attain buddhahood, sentient beings in the lands of the ten directions who, having heard my Name, concentrate their thoughts on my land, plant roots of virtue, and sincerely transfer their merits toward my land with a desire to be born there should not eventually fulfill their aspiration, may I not attain perfect enlightenment.

And this passage in the Shorter Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra (Taisho no. 366):

Shāriputra, if there is a good man or a good woman who hears spoken ‘Amitābha’ and holds the name, whether for one day, two days, three, four, five days, six days, as long as seven days, with one heart unconfused, when this person approaches the end of life, before him will appear Amitābha and all the assembly of holy ones. When the end comes, his heart is without inversion; in Amitābha’s Land of Ultimate Bliss he will attain rebirth.

Lastly, one passage from the Sutra on the Contemplation of Amitāyus (Taishō 365) was also particularly influential on East Asian Pure Land authors (Amitāyus is an alternative name for Amitābha). This passage says that even sentient beings who commit the "five grave offenses" (which include even killing one's parents) and other very evil acts can still be reborn in the Pure Land (though in the lowest stage of birth). It also explains how one's assurance of birth in the Pure Land may be attained prior to death:

When he is about to die, he may meet a good teacher, who consoles him in various ways…but he is too tormented by pain to do so. The good teacher then advises him, “If you cannot concentrate on the Buddha then you should say instead, ‘Homage to Amitāyus Buddha.’ ” In this way, he sincerely and continuously says, “Homage to Amitāyus Buddha” ten times…. When he comes to die, he sees before him a golden lotus flower like the disk of the sun, and in an instant he is born within a lotus bud in the Land of Utmost Bliss.

There are a few other influential sources on East Asian nianfo practice, including the Teaching of Manjusri 700 Line Prajñāpāramitā Sutra (Mañjuśrīparivartāparaparyāyā Saptaśatikāprajñāpāramitā), Vasubandhu's Discourse on the Pure Land (Jìngtǔ lùn 浄土論), the "Chapter on Purifying a Buddha-land" in the Dà zhìdù lùn (Great Prajñāpāramitā Commentary) and the "easy path" chapter in Nagarjuna's *Dasabhumikavibhāsā (Chinese: Shí zhù pípóshā lùn 十住毘婆沙論, T.1521).

These various Mahayana sources were particularly important for the East Asian Pure Land Buddhist tradition, which is the set of beliefs and practices centered around the idea that all beings, even the most ordinary people, can attain birth in the Pure Land through the power of Amitābha Buddha. This tradition centered its practices on the nianfo. These sources were also influential on other Chinese traditions who also practiced nianfo, including Chan and Tiantai.

Nianfo in China

Portrait of the Chinese Pure land patriarch Shandao reciting "the nianfo" (Amitabha's name)

The six Chinese characters of the nianfo, resting on a lotus, flanked by Sakyamuni and Amitabha

In Chinese translations of Buddhist Mahayana sources, the most common character for smṛti ("mindfulness", "recollection") became 念 (niàn), and thus recollection of the Buddha became niànfó. The character 念 generally means to think, recall, contemplate, mentally focus, or even "long for". However the term is ambiguous and can also mean to recite texts aloud so as to memorize them as well as "a moment in time".

In China, nianfo became an important "dharma-gate" (fǎmén 法門), taught by numerous traditions and Buddhist masters. Perhaps one of the earliest well known Chinese practitioners of nianfo was Huiyuan, who practiced mindfulness of the Buddha as taught in the Pratyutpanna Samādhi Sūtra so as to have a vision of Buddha Amitābha. Nianfo was also taught by the founder of Tiantai Buddhism, patriarch Zhìyǐ (538–597). In his Móhē zhǐguān. Zhìyǐ taught a practice he named “constantly walking meditation,” in which one would walk around a Buddha statue in a ritualized manner while contemplating the Buddha Amitabha for up to ninety days.

In the Pure Land tradition

Early Chinese Pure Land figures like Tanluan (476–542) and Daochuo (562–645) promoted the practice of nianfo as a way to achieve rebirth in the Pure Land of Amitabha. Tanluan taught that through the practice of nianfo, which included visualizing Amitabha and reciting Amitabha's name with faith, one could tune into the "other power" of this Buddha, which could purify one's mind and take one to the Pure Land of Sukhavati. Tanluan also taught that one could practice nianfo by simply holding the name of Amitabha in one's mind as an image of the sound. He argued that the name of Amitabha contained the full reality of that Buddha and as such, one could contemplate the Buddha by just contemplating the name. The main innovation of Tanluan's student Daochuo was that he argued that the world was entering the "last days of the Dharma". In this degenerate era, practices which relied solely on "self-power" (zìlì 自力), were no longer effective. As such, the only truly effective method to achieve Buddhahood was to practice nianfo and rely on the "other power" (tālì 他力) of Amitabha. Like Tanluan, Daochuo recommended a simple practice of meditating on the name of Amitabha (rather than focusing on complex visualizations). He also introduced the practice of counting one's nianfo contemplations with the beads of a mala.

While these early Chinese Pure Land authors taught nianfo as mostly a mental "holding of the name", it was Shandao (7th century) who would go on to interpret the term nianfo to refer to the oral recitation Amitabha's name. For Shandao, the nianfo of “orally holding Amitāyus’s name” (kǒuchēng Mítuó mínghào 口稱彌陀名號), was the main practice of Pure Land Buddhism. All other practices were merely auxiliary practices. These auxiliaries which were secondary to oral recitation include visualization of Amitabha and his Pure Land, worshiping Amitabha, praising him, and making offerings to him. Over time, the term niànfó also came to refer to Amitabha's name itself.

While Shandao taught these auxiliary practices, he also held that reciting Amitabha's name ten times was sufficient for rebirth in Sukhavati. In spite of this, constant lifelong practice was still considered useful by the Pure Land tradition, since one could improve one's stage of rebirth in the Pure Land and thus achieve Buddhahood faster once there (while those who did no practice at all would likely be born in the lower level).

The recitation of the nianfo was particularly critical for the dying and it quickly became a major deathbed practice. For example, in "The Meritorious Dharma Gate of the Samādhi Involving Contemplation of the Ocean-like Marks of the Buddha Amitābha" (Chinese: 阿彌陀佛相海三昧功德法門; pinyin: Ēmítuófó xiāng hǎi sānmèi gōngdé fǎmén), Shandao prescribes a specific set of rituals and practices (including visualization techniques) which can help dying Buddhist devotees avoid “evil destinies” and procure successful rebirth in the Pure Land. Shandao also taught on many dangers that he believed could hinder a dying aspirant's rebirth in the Pure Land in his "Correct Mindfulness for Rebirth at the Moment of Death" (Chinese: 臨終往生正念文; pinyin: Línzhōng wǎngshēng zhèngniàn wén). These sources reflect a traditional Chinese concern regarding various more complicated requirements for rebirth in the Pure Land, which include but are not limited to the recitation of Amitābha's name on one's deathbed.

The well known form of the nianfo (na-mo a-mi-tuo fo) was standardized by a later Pure Land patriarch, Fazhao (died c. 820). Fazhao also promoted the melodic "five stage nianfo" (五會念佛) method, and he taught nianfo at the imperial court. This method involves five different ways of chanting the nianfo phrase: in a slow sonorous way, slow but rising in pitch, moderate tempo, gradually accelerating in tempo, and lastly to chant only Amituofo very rapidly.

In other Chinese schools

The practice of nianfo was also widely practiced in other schools of East Asian Buddhism., including in the Chan / Zen traditions and in the traditions of Tiantai and Huayan. Throughout Chinese Buddhist history, the nianfo was also recited alongside practices from other traditions such as Tiantai and Chan.

Nianfo and related practices for rebirth in the Pure Land of Amitabha was also practiced in Chinese esoteric Buddhism, though this tradition focused on the use of mantras and dharanis associated with Amitabha instead of the classic non-esoteric nianfo phrase "Namo Amitabha".

Types of nianfo

Nianfo hall, Baoning Temple

There are numerous ways of practicing nianfo in Chinese Buddhism. The most popular method in Pure Land Buddhism remains the simple recitation of the phrase Namo Amituo-fo (Namo Amitabha Buddha) as promoted by the Pure Land masters. This can be done alone or in a group. Individuals may track their recitations using a mala, sometimes seeking to achieve a specific number of recitations per day. Group chanting sessions may be accompanied by a wooden fish or other percussion instruments. Special halls are often set aside for chanting, called nianfo halls.

Guīfēng Zōngmì (圭峰宗密, 780–841) was a Huayan and Chan master who also wrote on nianfo practice. He taught a schema of four types of nianfo which were adopted by later Pure Land authors like Yúnqī Zhūhóng (1535–1615) and Zhìyù (1924–2000). Zōngmì's four types of nianfo are:

• "Contemplation of the name" (chēngmíng niàn 稱名念), which is based on The Perfection of Wisdom Sutra preached by Mañjuśrī (T.232) and involves selecting a Buddha, facing their direction, and focusing on their name until one has a vision of all buddhas (past, present, and future). As noted by Jones, while later Chinese Pure Land thinkers interpreted this practice as oral recitation, it seems that for Zongmi this entailed mentally "holding" (chēngmíng 稱名) the sound of the name. Yúnqī Zhūhóng taught "holding the name" in various ways including: audible recitation of the name (míngchí 明持), silent contemplation of the name (mòchí 默持), or contemplation accompanied by barely audible whispering of the name (bànmíng bànmò chí 半 明半默持).
• "Contemplating an image" (guānxiàng niàn 觀像念), which is based on the Dà bǎojī jīng (大寶積經 Great Jewel Collection Sutra, T.310) which according to Jones "says that in contemplating an image of a buddha, one realizes the non-duality of the image with the buddha."
• "Contemplating the visualization" (guānxiǎng niàn 觀想念), "means to contemplate the major and minor marks of a buddha's body without the aid of a physical image. One may select one feature upon which to focus or contemplate them all simultaneously." The sources for this nianfo practice are the Sutra on the samadhi-ocean of the contemplation of the Buddha (T.643) and Sutra on the samadhi of seated meditation (T.614).
• "Contemplating the true mark" (shíxiàng niàn 實相念), "one contemplates the buddha's dharma body, which is also the contemplation of one's own true self and the true nature of all phenomena. This is also based on The Perfection of Wisdom Sutra Preached by Mañjuśrī, which describes the true nature of the buddha as "unproduced and unextinguished, neither going nor coming, without name and without feature. That alone is called 'buddha'."

This schema may have been presented as a progressive path of practice, from easiest to most difficult and profound. While Zōngmì held that the fourth method of nianfo was the most profound, Yúnqī Zhūhóng reversed this progression, arguing that "contemplation of the name" was actually the highest practice.

Yúnqī Zhūhóng also taught that there were two main mental attitudes that can be applied to practicing nianfo:

• "Phenomenal holding of the name" (shì chí 事 持), which entails concentrating on the individual syllables of the name. This leads to a calm and focused mind, and thus to samadhi and so it is mainly a "calming" (zhǐ 止, samatha) practice.
• "Noumenal holding of the name" (lǐ chí 理持), which shifts the attention to the mind that is holding the name and eventually realizes that the non-duality of oneself and Amitabha. This is a contemplation (guān 觀) practice aimed at wisdom.

Modern Chinese Buddhism

In modern Chinese practice, nianfo specifically utilized as a subject of meditation and often practiced while counting with Buddhist prayer beads. The modern Chan revitaliser Nan Huai-Chin taught that the nianfo is to be chanted slowly and the mind emptied out after each repetition. When idle thoughts arise, the nianfo is repeated again to clear them. With constant practice, the mind progressively empties and the meditator attains samādhi.

Nembutsu in Japan

A Nenbutsu Gathering in Kyoto, from the Illustrated Biography of the Monk Ippen and His Disciple Ta'a (Yugyō Shōnin engi-e)

Chinese teachings on the practice of nianfo (Japanese: nembutsu) were adopted into Japanese Buddhism. Early Pure Land practices of the Tendai school relied on meditation practices taught by Chinese patriarch Zhiyi in the Mohe Zhiguan. Later, the Tendai monk Genshin in his Ōjōyōshū elucidated the Pure Land practices, as well as promoting the nembutsu both as a meditative practice and the simple verbal recitation of the name of Amida as a backup method in case one failed to attain enlightenment in this life.

Other schools of Japanese Buddhism, like Sanron and Shingon, also developed their own teachings on the nembutsu. The Shingon monk Kakuban (1095–1143) for example, taught an esoteric nembutsu influenced by Japanese Pure Land and Shingon esoteric Buddhism. Furthermore, during the Later Heian (950–1185), various itinerant ascetics and preachers traveled the country promoting the simple recitation of the nembutsu. These holy people (hiriji) who were also called shōnin, were mostly independent of major Buddhist institutions. The most well known of these figures was Kūya (903–972), who wandered throughout the provinces preaching on nembutsu practice.

An illustration from the Yūzū Nembutsu Engi Emaki which depicts a vision of Amitabha Buddha to a nembutsu reciter of the Yūzū Nembutsu school

By the end of the 12th century, distinctive sects focused exclusively on the practice of nembutsu as a verbal recitation for the purposes of being reborn in the Pure Land arose. These new Pure Land (jodo) schools were part of the New Kamakura Buddhism. They include Honen's (1133–1212) Jodo Shu, Shinran's (1173–1263) Jodo Shinshu and smaller sects like Yūzū Nembutsu and Ippen's Ji-shu. The new Pure Land schools often held that the world had entered the era of the decline of the Dharma (mappō) and that only the Pure land practice of reciting the nembutsu was useful for attaining liberation (after rebirth in the Pure Land). In Jōdo Shinshū, under the leadership of Rennyo (1415–99), the nembutsu was further reinterpreted as an expression of gratitude to Amitābha for his salvation, rather than a means to be reborn in the Pure Land.

These Pure Land schools were extremely popular and influential. Other schools responded with various critiques of their nembutsu practice and with their own similar devotional teachings. One critic was the Kegon monk Myōe, who wrote two critical treatises against Honen's views. His central critique was that exclusive nembutsu practice lacked central Mahayana foundations, like bodhicitta (the mind aimed at awakening for the sake of all beings). Nevertheless, Myōe was also a promoter of simply reciting the Mantra of Light as a way to attain rebirth in Sukhavati. Similarly, the Yogacara figure Jōkei (1155–1213) responded to the widespread popularity of the nembutsu practice by promoting a similar series of simple devotional practices which relied on the other power of a Buddha, though he preferred to focus on Maitreya or Shakyamuni Buddha instead of Amitabha as the main object of devotion.

"Taiko Nembutsu" (nembutsu accompanied by drumming) practiced in Hakushima, Japan

The critiques became so heated that a temporary "nembutsu-ban" occurred in Kyoto c. 1207 where Hōnen and his followers were banned from the city and forced into exile. This occurred when the leaders of older schools of Buddhism persuaded the civil authorities to prohibit the newer practices including the recitation of Namu Amida Butsu. The ban was lifted in 1211.

Later in Japanese history, the nembutsu would also become popular in Japanese Zen, influenced by the rise of the Ōbaku lineage, introduced by Ingen in the 17th century, who followed a Chinese Chan-Pure Land dual cultivation tradition.

In Vietnamese Buddhism

Verses for reciting the Buddha's name by Venerable Thích Trí Tịnh engraved on stone and erected in the grounds of Vạn Đức Pagoda in Thủ Đức, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam.

Vietnamese Buddhism is an eclectic tradition which draws from all strains of Chinese Buddhism, including Chan and Pure Land. As such, the practice of "Niệm Phật" (the Vietnamese term for nianfo) is a common feature of modern Vietnamese Buddhist practice. The phrase "Nam mô A-di-đà Phật" or "Nam mô A Mi Đà" is often chanted in Vietnamese temples by monks and laypeople alike.

The nianfo method is often combined with Thiền meditation (i.e. zazen). Indeed, according to Thích Thiên-Ân, "at present the popular method of practice is meditation during recitation and recitation during meditation - meditation and recitation being one and the same for Vietnamese Buddhists". This Chan Nianfo dual practice is known as "union of Zen and Pure-Land recitation".

Thích Quảng Đức, a South Vietnamese Mahāyāna monk who famously burned himself to death in an act of protest against the anti-Buddhist policies of the Catholic President Ngô Đình Diệm, said the nianfo as his last words immediately before death. He sat in the lotus position, rotated a string of wooden prayer beads, and recited the words "Nam mô A-di-đà Phật" before striking the match and dropping it on himself, continuing to recite Amitabha's name as he burned.

Phrases used in recitation

Sanskrit

Namo Amitābhāya Buddhāya in the Siddhaṃ script

The Sanskrit phrase used in India is not mentioned originally in the bodies of the two main Pure Land sutras. It appears in the opening of the extant Sanskrit Infinite Life Sutra, as well as the later composition, the Contemplation Sutra, although it is a reverse rendering from Chinese, as the following:

namo'mitābhāya buddhāya (IPA: [n̪ɐmoːɐmɪt̪ɑːbʱɑːjɐbud̪̚.d̪ʱɑːjɐ] )

The apostrophe and omission of the first "A" in "Amitābha" comes from normal Sanskrit sandhi transformation, and implies that the first "A" is omitted. A more accessible rendering without sandhi might be:

Namo Amitābhāya Buddhāya

A literal English translation would be "Bow for the sake of Amitābha Buddha" or "Homage to Amitābha Buddha".

Nianfo in East Asia

Japanese itinerant monk Kūya reciting the nembutsu, each of the Chinese characters represented by a small figure of Amida emerging from his mouth

As the practice of nianfo spread from India to various other regions, the original pronunciation changed to fit various local languages.

Language	As written	Romanization	IPA
Sanskrit	नमोऽमिताभाय बुद्धाय नमोऽमितयुसे बुद्धाय	Namo'mitābhāya Buddhāya	[n̪ɐmoːɐmɪt̪ɑːbʱɑːjɐbud̪̚.d̪ʱɑːjɐ] [n̪ɐmoːɐmɪt̪ɑːjʊʂeːbud̪̚.d̪ʱɑːjɐ]
Chinese	Traditional: 南無阿彌陀佛 Simplified: 南无阿弥陀佛	Mandarin: Nāmó Ēmítuófó Cantonese: naa1 mo4 o1 mei4 to4 fat6	[nä˥˥ mu̯ɔ˧˥ ˀɤ˥˥ mi˧˥ tʰu̯ɔ˧˥ fu̯ɔ˧˥] [naː˥˥ mɔː˨˩ ɔː˥˥ mei̯˨˩ tʰɔː˨˩ fɐt̚˨]
Japanese	Kanji: 南無阿弥陀仏 Hiragana: なむ あみだ ぶつ	Namu Amida Butsu	[na̠mɯ̟ᵝ a̠mʲida̠bɯ̟ᵝt͡sɨᵝ]
Korean	Hanja: 南無阿彌陀佛 Hangul: 나무아미타불	Namu Amita Bul	[na̠mua̠mitʰa̠buɭ]
Vietnamese	Chữ Hán: 南無阿彌陀佛 Quốc ngữ: Nam mô A-di-đà Phật	Nam mô A-di-đà Phật	[naːm˧˧ mo˧˧ ʔaː˧˧ zi˧˧ ʔɗaː˨˩ fət̚˧˨ʔ]

In China, the practice of nianfo was codified with the establishment of the separate Pure Land school of Buddhism. The most common form of this is the six syllable nianfo; some shorten it into Ēmítuófó/Āmítuófó. In the Japanese Jodo Shinshu sect, it is often shortened to na man da bu.

Variations and alternate names

Alternate Sanskrit phrases

While almost unknown, and unused outside of the original Sanskrit, the texts provide a recitation of Amitābha's alternate aspect of Amitāyus as:

namo'mitāyuṣe buddhāya (Namo Amitāyuṣe Buddhāya)

A literal translation of this version would be "Namo Buddha of Infinite Life". Other translations may also be: "I pay homage to the Enlightened One immeasurable" or "I turn to rely on the Enlightened One immeasurable".

The Longer Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra contains twelve epithets of Amitābha Buddha. Vasubandhu's Treatise on Birth in the Pure Land (Wang-sheng-lun) references these lights of Amitābha. Their recitation was also taught by Chinese Pure Land figures like Shandao. The twelve names are:

1. Tathāgato 'mitābha - The Tathāgata (Amitābha)
2. Amitaprabhaḥ - Immeasurable Splendor
3. Amitaprabhāso - Unbounded Splendor
4. Asamāptaprabhaḥ - Unending Splendor
5. Saṃgataprabhaḥ - Radiance with rays like a cluster of jewels
6. Prabhāśikhotsṛṣṭaprabhaḥ - Lord of Ineffable Splendor
7. Sādivyamaṇiprabhaḥ - Lord with Unobstructed Splendor
8. Apratihataraśmirāgaprabhaḥ - Lord of Immeasurable Splendor
9. Rājanīyaprabhaḥ - Lord with Inconceivable Splendor
10. Premaṇīyaprabhaḥ - Lord of Supreme Splendor
11. Pramodanīyaprabhaḥ - Lord of Loveable Splendor
12. Saṃgamanīyaprabha - Lord of Delightful Splendor
13. Upoṣaṇīyaprabhaḥ - Lord with Congenial Splendor
14. Nibandhanīyaprabhaḥ - Lord with Unfading Splendor
15. Ativīryaprabhaḥ - Lord with Unbreakable Splendor
16. Atulyaprabhaḥ - Lord with Incomparable Splendor
17. Abhibhūyanarendrāmūnnayendraprabhaḥ - Lord who surpasses even the splendor of the kings (The term with the question mark indicates uncertainty in the reading)
18. Śrāntasaṃcayendusūryajihmīkaraṇaprabhaḥ - Lord surpassing the splendor of the moon and the gathering of stars

In an East Asian Buddhist context the term nianfo or nembutsu generally refers to the recitation of Amitabha Buddha's name. Technically speaking however, the literally term means "Buddha Recollection" and hence can apply to the recitation of any Buddha's name, such as reciting "Namo Shakyamuni Buddha" or "Namo Mahavairocana Buddha" etc. In these cases, the term nianfo is often prefigured by the name of that Buddha. For example, the Japanese term Shaka Nembutsu refers to the recitation of Namo Shakyamuni Buddha.

Esoteric phrases

Image of an engraving of the Pure Land Rebirth Dharani discovered at the Mogao Caves, Dunhuang.

In Esoteric Buddhist traditions, there are various mantras associated with Amitabha and their recitation would be considered a type of Buddha mindfulness or nianfo. Shingon Buddhism makes use of the following mantra of Amitabha which is found in The Nine Grades of Rebirth Amita Samādhi Dhāraṇī Sūtra (九品往生阿彌陀三摩地集陀羅尼經, Taisho no. 933):

oṃ amṛta teje hara hūṃ

In Tibetan Buddhism, the main mantra is:

oṃ amideva hrīḥ

The Amitabha Pure Land Rebirth Dharani (往生淨土神咒) is another Amitabha Sanskrit passage that is used in East Asian Buddhism. It is:

namo amitābhāya tathāgatāya tadyathā amṛtadbhave amṛtasaṃbhave amṛtavikrānte amṛtavikrānta gāmine gagana kīrtakare svāhā

East Asian Nianfo variants

In the Jodo Shinshu tradition in Japan, variant forms of the nianfo have been used since its inception. The founder, Shinran, used a nine-character Kujimyōgō (九字名号) in the Shoshinge and the Sanamidabutsuge (讃阿弥陀佛偈) hymns:

南無不可思議光如来

Na mu fu ka shi gi kō nyo rai

"I take refuge in the Buddha of Inconceivable Light!"

Further, the "restorer" of Jodo Shinshu, Rennyo, frequently inscribed the nianfo for followers using a 10-character Jūjimyōgō (十字名号):

帰命尽十方無碍光如来
Ki myō jin jip-pō mu ge kō nyo rai

"I take refuge in the Tathagata of Unobstructed Light Suffusing the Ten Directions".

The latter was originally popularized by Shinran's descendant (and Rennyo's ancestor), Kakunyo, but its use was greatly expanded by Rennyo.

Bibliography

• Baskind, James (2008). The Nianfo in Obaku Zen: A Look at the Teachings of the Three Founding Masters, Japanese Religions 33 (1–2),19-34
• Buswell, Robert Jr; Lopez, Donald S. Jr., eds. (2013). Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 9780691157863.
• Grumbach, Lisa (2005). "Nenbutsu and Meditation: Problems with the Categories of Contemplation, Devotion, Meditation, and Faith", Pacific World, Third Series, 7, 91–105.
• Inagaki Hisao, trans., Stewart, Harold (2003). The Three Pure Land Sutras, 2nd ed., Berkeley, Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research. ISBN 1-886439-18-4
• Jones, Charles B. (2001). Toward a Typology of Nien-fo: A Study in Methods of Buddha-Invocation in Chinese Pure Land Buddhism, Pacific World, Third Series, 3, 219–239.
• Jones, Charles B. (2019). Chinese Pure Land Buddhism, Understanding a Tradition of Practice. University of Hawai‘i Press / Honolulu.
• Jones, Charles B. (2021). Pure Land: History, Tradition, and Practice. Shambhala Publications.
• Keenan, John P. (1989). Nien-Fo (Buddha-Anusmrti): The Shifting Structure of Remembrance, Pacific World, New Series 5, 40–52
• Li-Ying, Kuo (1995), La récitation des noms de "buddha" en Chine et au Japon. T'oung Pao, Second Series 81 (4/5), 230–268
• Payne, Richard K. (2005). "Seeing Buddhas, Hearing Buddhas: Cognitive Significance of Nenbutsu as Visualization and as Recitation", Pacific World, Third Series, 7, 110-141

External links

• The Nian Fo according to the Jodo Shu tradition
• The Tannisho
• The Larger Sutra of Immeasurable Life